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the big freeze

Толкование Перевод

1 the big freeze

the big freeze

de strenge vorst

English-Dutch dictionary > the big freeze
2 freeze

freeze [fri:z]

(preterite froze, past participle frozen)

1. intransitive verb

   a. [liquid] geler ; [food] se congeler

• to freeze to death mourir de froid

• the lake has frozen le lac est gelé

   b. ( = stop) se figer

• he froze (in his tracks) il est resté figé sur place

• freeze! pas un geste !

2. transitive verb

   a. [+ liquid] geler ; [+ food] congeler ; (industrially) surgeler

   b. [+ assets, credit, wages, prices] geler ; [+ bank account] bloquer

3. noun

   a. ( = cold period) the big freeze of 1948 la vague de froid de 1948

   b. [of prices, credit] gel m

• a wage freeze un gel des salaires

• a freeze on nuclear weapons testing un gel des essais nucléaires

4. compounds

► freeze-dry transitive verb lyophiliser

► freeze-frame noun [of film, video] arrêt m sur image transitive verb

• to freeze-frame a video faire un arrêt sur image

► freeze over intransitive verb

[lake, river] geler ; [windscreen] givrer

• the river has frozen over la rivière est gelée

* * *
[friːz] 1.
noun

1) Meteorology gelées fpl

2) Economics, Finance (of credits, assets) gel m (on de); (of prices, wages) gel m, blocage m
2.
transitive verb (prét froze; pp frozen)

1) congeler [food]; [cold weather] geler [liquid, pipes]

2) Economics, Finance bloquer, geler

3) Cinema arrêter

4) ( anaesthetize) insensibiliser

5) Computing figer
3.
intransitive verb (prét froze; pp frozen)

1) ( become solid) [water, pipes] geler; [food] se congeler

2) ( feel cold) geler

to be freezing to death — mourir de froid

3) ( become motionless) se figer ( with de)

freeze! — pas un geste!

4) ( become haughty) devenir glacial
4.
impersonal verb Meteorology geler

Phrasal Verbs:

- freeze out

- freeze over

English-French dictionary > freeze
3 freeze

freeze

A n

1 Meteorol gelées fpl ; the big freeze les fortes gelées ;

2 Econ, Fin (of credits, assets) gel m (on de) ; (of prices, wages) gel m, blocage m ; benefit/price/rent/wage freeze gel des allocations sociales/des prix/des loyers/des salaires.

B vtr ( prét froze ; pp frozen)

1 congeler [food] ; [cold weather] geler [liquid, pipes] ; the lock was frozen la serrure était gelée ;

2 Econ, Fin bloquer, geler [price, loan, wages, assets] ;

3 Cin arrêter [frame, picture] ;

4 ( anaesthetize) insensibiliser [gum, wart, skin] ;

5 Comput figer [window].

C vi ( prét froze ; pp frozen)

1 ( become solid) [water, river, pipes] geler ; [food] se congeler ; to freeze to sth être collé à qch par le gel ;

2 ( feel cold) [person, room] geler ; to be freezing to death mourir de froid ;

3 fig ( become motionless) [person, animal, blood] se figer ; the smile froze on his face son sourire s'est figé sur ses lèvres ; freeze! pas un geste! ; to freeze with horror/surprise se figer d'horreur/de surprise ;

4 fig ( become haughty) [person] devenir glacial.

D v impers Meteorol geler ; it's freezing hard il gèle dur.

Idioms

I can wait until hell freezes over je peux attendre aussi longtemps qu'il faudra ; when hell freezes over! jamais!

Phrasal verbs

■ freeze out:

▶ freeze [sb/sth] out, freeze out [sb/sth] gen [person] tourner le dos à [colleague, friend] ; Comm supplanter [competitor, company] ; éliminer [qch] du marché [goods].

■ freeze over [lake, river] geler ; [window, windscreen] se couvrir de givre ; the windscreen is frozen over le pare-brise est couvert de givre.

■ freeze up [pipe, lock] geler ; [window] se couvrir de givre.

Big English-French dictionary > freeze
4 freeze

1. intransitive verb,
froze, frozen

1) frieren

it will freeze — (Meteorol.) es wird Frost geben

2) (become covered with ice) [See, Fluss, Teich:] zufrieren; [Straße:] vereisen

3) (solidify) [Flüssigkeit:] gefrieren; [Rohr, Schloss:] einfrieren

4) (become rigid) steif frieren; (fig.) [Lächeln:] gefrieren (geh.)

5) (be or feel cold) sehr frieren; (fig.) erstarren ( with vor + Dat.); [Blut:] gefrieren (geh.)

my hands are freezing — meine Hände sind eiskalt

freeze to death — erfrieren; (fig.) bitterlich frieren

6) (make oneself motionless) erstarren
2. transitive verb,
froze, frozen

1) zufrieren lassen [Teich, Fluss]; gefrieren lassen [Rohr]; (fig.) erstarren lassen

we were frozen stiff — (fig.) wir waren steif gefroren

2) (preserve) tiefkühlen, tiefgefrieren [Lebensmittel]

3) einfrieren [Kredit, Guthaben, Gelder, Löhne, Preise usw.]

4) (fig.) erstarren lassen
3. noun
(fixing) Einfrieren, das (on Gen.)

price/wage freeze — Preis-/Lohnstopp, der

Phrasal Verbs:

- academic.ru/87253/freeze_up">freeze up

* * *
[fri:z] 1. past tense - froze; verb
1) (to make into or become ice: It's so cold that the river has frozen over.) frieren

2) ((of weather) to be at or below freezing-point: If it freezes again tonight all my plants will die.) frieren

3) (to make or be very cold: If you had stayed out all night in the snow you might have frozen to death (= died of exposure to cold).) erfrieren

4) (to make (food) very cold in order to preserve it: You can freeze the rest of that food and eat it later.) einfrieren

5) (to make or become stiff, still or unable to move (with fear etc): She froze when she heard the strange noise.) erstarren

6) (to fix prices, wages etc at a certain level: If the situation does not improve, wages will be frozen again.) einfrieren, stoppen
2. noun
(a period of very cold weather when temperatures are below freezing-point: How long do you think the freeze will last?) der Frost

- freezer
- freezing
- frozen
- freezing-point
- freeze up
* * *

freeze

[fri:z]

I. n

1. ( fam: cold weather) Frost m

big \freeze harter Frost

2. (stoppage) Einfrieren nt fam

a wage/price \freeze [or a \freeze on wage/prices] ein Einfrieren nt der Löhne/der Preise fam

\freeze on wages and prices Lohn- und Preisstopp m

3. (still picture) Standbild nt; (device on video player) Standbildfunktion f

II. vi

<froze, frozen>

1. (become solid) water gefrieren; pipes einfrieren; lake zufrieren

to \freeze solid water festfrieren

2. ( also fig: get very cold) [sehr] frieren

to \freeze to death erfrieren

3. impers (be below freezing point)

▪ it's freezing es friert

it froze three nights in a row es gab drei Nächte hintereinander Frost

4. (store in freezer) einfrieren

5. (be still) erstarren

\freeze, or I'll shoot! keine Bewegung oder ich schieße!

6. (be jammed) screw, nail klemmen

III. vt

<froze, frozen>

1. (turn to ice)

▪ to \freeze sth etw gefrieren lassen

2. (preserve)

▪ to \freeze sth etw einfrieren

3. (make sb stop)

▪ to \freeze sb jdn erstarren lassen

to \freeze sb with a look/stare jdn mit einem Blick zum Erstarren bringen

4. (on a film)

to \freeze an action/image ein Geschehnis/Bild festhalten

to \freeze a film einen Film anhalten

5. (fix at particular level)

to \freeze a salary/programme ein Gehalt/Programm einfrieren fam

6. (prevent from being used)

▪ to \freeze sth etw sperren

to \freeze an account ein Konto einfrieren fam

his assets have been frozen by the court seine Vermögenswerte wurden vom Gericht blockiert

7. (anaesthetize)

▪ to \freeze sth etw vereisen

8.

▶ to [be cold enough to] \freeze the balls off a brass monkey (fam!) so kalt sein, dass es einem die Eier abfriert derb

▶ to make sb's blood \freeze [or \freeze sb's blood] jdm das Blut in den Adern gefrieren lassen geh

* * *
[friːz] vb: pret froze, ptp frozen
1. vi

1) (MET) frieren; (water, liquids) gefrieren; (lakes, rivers) zufrieren; (pipes) einfrieren

it'll freeze hard tonight — es wird heute Nacht starken Frost geben

to freeze to death (lit) — erfrieren; (fig) sich zu Tode frieren

See:

→ freezing, frozen

2) (fig) (blood) erstarren, gerinnen; (heart) aussetzen; (smile) erstarren, gefrieren

the sound made me freeze — das Geräusch ließ mir das Blut in den Adern erstarren or gefrieren or gerinnen

3) (= keep still) in der Bewegung verharren or erstarren

he froze in his tracks — er blieb wie angewurzelt stehen

freeze! — keine Bewegung!

4) (COOK)

meat freezes well — Fleisch lässt sich gut einfrieren

5) (COMPUT) nicht mehr reagieren, sich aufhängen (inf)

2. vt

1) water gefrieren; (MED, COOK) einfrieren

2) (ECON) assets festlegen; credit, wages, programme, prices, bank account einfrieren; (= stop) film anhalten

3) (MED) wound vereisen

4) (fig)

to freeze sb with a look — jdm einen eisigen Blick zuwerfen

3. n

1) (MET) Frost m

the big freeze — der harte Frost

2) (ECON) Stopp m

a wage(s) freeze, a freeze on wages — ein Lohnstopp m

a freeze on nuclear weapons testing — ein Atomwaffenteststopp m

* * *

freeze [friːz]

A v/i prät froze [frəʊz], pperf frozen [ˈfrəʊzn]

1. unpers frieren:

it is freezing hard es friert stark, es herrscht starker Frost

2. (sehr) frieren:

freeze to death erfrieren;

I am freezing mir ist eiskalt

3. (ge)frieren, zu Eis werden: → blood A 1

4. hart oder fest werden, erstarren

5. auch freeze up ( oder over) zufrieren (See etc), vereisen (Windschutzscheibe etc):

freeze (up) einfrieren (Türschloss etc)

6. fest-, anfrieren ( beide:

to an dat)

7. haften (to an dat), TECH sich festfressen:

freeze onto sb sich wie eine Klette an jemanden hängen

8. sich einfrieren lassen:

meat freezes well

9. fig

a) (vor Schreck etc) erstarren (Person, Gesicht, Lächeln), eisig werden

b) erstarren:

freeze in one’s tracks zur Salzsäule erstarren, wie angewurzelt stehen bleiben;

freeze! halt, keine Bewegung!

c) freeze up THEAT (vor Nervosität) kein Wort herausbringen, sich nicht bewegen können

B v/t

1. zum Gefrieren bringen:

the north wind has frozen the water durch den Nordwind ist das Wasser gefroren;

I was frozen mir war eiskalt; → bone¹ A 1, marrow¹ 2

2. auch freeze up ( oder over) einen See etc zufrieren lassen, eine Windschutzscheibe etc vereisen lassen:

freeze (up) ein Türschloss etc einfrieren lassen;

the cold has frozen the door lock durch die Kälte ist das Türschloss eingefroren

3. meist freeze in, freeze up ein Schiff etc in Eis einschließen

4. erfrieren lassen

5. Fleisch etc einfrieren, tiefkühlen

6. MED vereisen

7. erstarren lassen

8. fig

a) erstarren lassen:

the sight froze him to the spot bei dem Anblick erstarrte er zur Salzsäule oder blieb er wie angewurzelt stehen

b) zum Schweigen bringen:

the teacher froze his noisy class with a single look

9. freeze out bes US umg jemanden ausschließen, kaltstellen umg, hinausekeln umg

10. WIRTSCH Guthaben etc sperren, blockieren

11. WIRTSCH Preise etc, POL diplomatische Beziehungen einfrieren

12. umg einen Zustand verewigen

13. SPORT den Ball (in den eigenen Reihen) halten

C s

1. (Ge)Frieren n

2. gefrorener Zustand

3. Frost(periode) m(f), Kälte(periode) f

4. WIRTSCH, POL Einfrieren n:

freeze on wages Lohnstopp m;

put a freeze on einfrieren

* * *
1. intransitive verb,
froze, frozen

1) frieren

it will freeze — (Meteorol.) es wird Frost geben

2) (become covered with ice) [See, Fluss, Teich:] zufrieren; [Straße:] vereisen

3) (solidify) [Flüssigkeit:] gefrieren; [Rohr, Schloss:] einfrieren

4) (become rigid) steif frieren; (fig.) [Lächeln:] gefrieren (geh.)

5) (be or feel cold) sehr frieren; (fig.) erstarren ( with vor + Dat.); [Blut:] gefrieren (geh.)

my hands are freezing — meine Hände sind eiskalt

freeze to death — erfrieren; (fig.) bitterlich frieren

6) (make oneself motionless) erstarren
2. transitive verb,
froze, frozen

1) zufrieren lassen [Teich, Fluss]; gefrieren lassen [Rohr]; (fig.) erstarren lassen

we were frozen stiff — (fig.) wir waren steif gefroren

2) (preserve) tiefkühlen, tiefgefrieren [Lebensmittel]

3) einfrieren [Kredit, Guthaben, Gelder, Löhne, Preise usw.]

4) (fig.) erstarren lassen
3. noun
(fixing) Einfrieren, das (on Gen.)

price/wage freeze — Preis-/Lohnstopp, der

Phrasal Verbs:

- freeze up

* * *

v.

(§ p.,p.p.: froze, frozen)

= einfrieren v.

frieren v.

(§ p.,pp.: fror, gefroren)

gefrieren v.

English-german dictionary > freeze
5 freeze

n. vorst, vorstperiode
--------
v. vriezen; doen bevriezen, invriezen, bevriezen

freeze¹

[ frie:z] 〈 zelfstandig naamwoord〉

1 vorst ⇒ vorstperiode

2 〈 vaak als tweede lid van samenstellingen〉 bevriezing ⇒ blokkering, opschorting

♦voorbeelden:

1   the big freeze • de strenge vorst

2   a wage freeze • een loonstop

————————

freeze²

〈froze [ frooz], frozen [froozn]〉

I 〈 onovergankelijk werkwoord〉

1 vriezen

♦voorbeelden:

1   it is freezing in here • het is hier om te bevriezen

II 〈 onovergankelijk en overgankelijk werkwoord〉

1 bevriezen ⇒ dood/kapotvriezen, vastvriezen

2 bevriezen 〈 ook figuurlijk〉 ⇒ verstijven, ijzig behandelen/reageren

3 〈vaak +over/up〉 bevriezen ⇒ dichtvriezen

4 invriezen

♦voorbeelden:

1   the driver froze to the wheel • de bestuurder zat als (vast)gekluisterd aan het stuur

     frozen with fear • verstijfd van angst

2   make one's blood freeze • het bloed in de aderen doen stollen

     freeze to death • doodvriezen

     she froze (up) at the remark • ze verstijfde bij het horen van de opmerking

     freeze out • 〈 informeel〉 uitsluiten

     〈Amerikaans-Engels; informeel〉 be frozen out • door de vorst afgelast worden

     the actors froze up • de acteurs waren verlamd (van de zenuwen)

4   do strawberries freeze well? • kun je aardbeien makkelijk invriezen?

     I am freezing/I am frozen • ik zie blauw van de kou

III 〈 overgankelijk werkwoord〉〈 economie〉

1 bevriezen ⇒ opschorten

♦voorbeelden:

1   the government froze all contracts • de regering bevroor alle contracten

English-Dutch dictionary > freeze
6 freeze

freeze [fri:z] (pt froze [frəʊz], pp frozen ['frəʊzən])

1 intransitive verb

(a) (earth, pipes, water) geler; (food) se congeler;

∎ the river has frozen la rivière est prise ou a gelé;

∎ the earth had frozen hard la terre avait gelé;

∎ the mud/food had frozen solid la boue/nourriture avait gelé;

∎ to freeze to death mourir de froid;

∎ we'll freeze if you open the window! nous allons geler si vous ouvrez la fenêtre!

(b) figurative (stop moving)

∎ (everybody) freeze! que personne ne bouge!;

∎ she froze (in her tracks) elle est restée figée sur place;

∎ her blood froze son sang se figea ou se glaça dans ses veines;

∎ the smile froze on his lips le sourire se figea sur ses lèvres

(c) Computing (of screen, computer) être bloqué

2 transitive verb

(a) (water) geler, congeler; (food) congeler; (at very low temperatures) surgeler; Medicine (blood, human tissue) congeler;

∎ figurative she froze them with a look d'un regard elle les glaça sur place;

∎ to be frozen to death mourir de froid

(b) Economics & Finance (credit, wages) geler, bloquer; (currency, prices, assets) geler

(c) Cinema

∎ freeze it! arrêtez l'image!

3 noun

Meteorology gel m; Economics & Finance (of credit, wages) gel m, blocage m; (of currency, prices, assets) gel m;

∎ we're in for another big freeze Meteorology il va y avoir une période de très grand froid; Economics il va y avoir une crise économique;

∎ they called for a freeze in the production of nuclear weapons ils ont appelé à un gel de la production d'armes nucléaires;

∎ pay freeze gel m ou blocage m des salaires

➲ freeze out separable transitive verb

familiar (exclude) exclure^□ ; (snub) snober^□

➲ freeze over intransitive verb

geler

➲ freeze up intransitive verb

(a) (turn to ice) geler

(b) familiar (person) rester pétrifié

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > freeze
7 freeze

[fri:z] n

1) (fam: cold weather) Frost m;

big \freeze harter Frost

2) ( stoppage) Einfrieren nt ( fam)

a pay/ price/wage \freeze [or a \freeze on pay/ prices/ wages] ein Einfrieren nt des Gehalts/der Preise/der Löhne ( fam)

3) ( still picture) Standbild nt; ( device on video player) Standbildfunktion f vi <froze, frozen>

1) ( become solid) water gefrieren; pipes einfrieren; lake zufrieren;

to \freeze solid water festfrieren;

2) (a. fig: get very cold) [sehr] frieren;

to \freeze to death erfrieren

3) impers ( be below freezing point)

it's freezing es friert;

it froze three nights in a row es gab drei Nächte hintereinander Frost

4) ( store in freezer) einfrieren

5) ( be still) erstarren;

\freeze, or I'll shoot! keine Bewegung oder ich schieße!

6) ( be jammed) screw, nail klemmen vt <froze, frozen>

1) ( turn to ice)

to \freeze sth etw gefrieren lassen

2) ( preserve)

to \freeze sth etw einfrieren

3) ( make sb stop)

to \freeze sb jdn erstarren lassen;

to \freeze sb with a look/ stare jdn mit einem Blick zum Erstarren bringen

4) ( on a film)

to \freeze an action/ image ein Geschehnis/Bild festhalten;

to \freeze a film einen Film anhalten

5) ( fix at particular level)

to \freeze a salary/ programme ein Gehalt/Programm einfrieren ( fam)

6) ( prevent from being used)

to \freeze an account ein Konto einfrieren ( fam)

7) ( anaesthetize)

to \freeze sth etw vereisen

PHRASES:

to [be cold enough to] \freeze the balls off a brass monkey (fam!) so kalt sein, dass es einem die Eier abfriert ( derb)

to make sb's blood \freeze [or \freeze sb's blood] jdm das Blut in den Adern gefrieren lassen ( geh)

English-German students dictionary > freeze
8 freeze out

1) замерзнуть, умереть от холода
2) перен. изгнать кого-л. откуда-л. (обычно о поле деятельности) грубыми методами, жестоко;
разг. отделаться( от соперника) Many big firms freeze out the competition by unfair means. ≈ Многие большие компании расправляются с конкурентами грязными методами. (разговорное) выживать, вытеснять, изгонять( кого-л) ;
вымораживать( разговорное) избавляться( от конкурента, навязчивого человека)

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > freeze out
9 give someone the freeze

expr AmE infml

Everybody seems to be giving me the freeze — Меня, кажется, все игнорируют

She gave me the big freeze — Она так на меня посмотрела

The new dictionary of modern spoken language > give someone the freeze
10 price

1. n
(for / of) цена (на что-л.), цена (чего-л.)

to accept a price — принимать цену

to agree on a price — договариваться о цене

to alter a price — изменять цену

to beat down a price — сбивать цену

to bolster a price — поддерживать цену

to boost the prices — приводить к росту цен

to bring (about) a rise in prices — приводить к росту цен

to bring down prices — снижать цены

to bring smth in line with world prices — приводить что-л. в соответствие с мировыми ценами

to charge a price — запрашивать / назначать цену

to command a high price — продаваться по высокой цене

to compete with prices — конкурировать с ценами

to control prices — регулировать цены

to cut a price — снижать цену

to decontrol prices — отказываться от контроля над ценами

to decree prices — централизованно устанавливать цены

to depress prices — приводить к снижению цен

to deregulate prices — вводить свободные цены; отпускать цены

to double prices — удваивать цены

to drive down a price — сбивать цену

to drive up a price — взвинчивать цену

to eliminate the wide fluctuations in commodity prices — устранять значительные колебания цен на сырьевые товары

to ensure stable prices — обеспечивать устойчивые цены

to fetch a high price — продаваться по высокой цене

to fix a price — назначать / устанавливать цену

to force down the prices — сбивать цены

to free prices — либерализировать / отпускать цены

to freeze a price — замораживать цену

to get a high price — продаваться по высокой цене

to impose a freeze of prices — вводить замораживание цен

to increase a price — повышать цену

to inflate a price — взвинчивать цену

to institute control over prices — устанавливать контроль над ценами

to keep prices down — препятствовать росту цен

to level down prices — понижать цены

to level up prices — поднимать цены

to lift controls on prices — отменять контроль над ценами

to lower a price — снижать цену

to maintain prices — поддерживать / сохранять цены на одном уровне

to mark down a price — понижать цену

to mark up a price — повышать цену

to pay a price for smth — расплачиваться / поплатиться за что-л.

to pay a high price — тж перен. дорого заплатить

to pay a human price — заплатить за что-л. человеческими жизнями

to place a price on smb's head — назначать награду за поимку или уничтожение кого-л.

to push down a price — сбивать цену

to push up a price — взвинчивать цену

to put a price on smth — назначать цену на что-л.

to put up a price — повышать цену

to quote a price — бирж. назначать, котировать цену

to raise a price — повышать цену

to reduce a price — снижать цену

to regulate prices — регулировать / упорядочивать цены

to reverse the decline of prices — приостанавливать падение цен

to roll back / to scale down a price — снижать цену

to secure remunerative, equitable and stable prices — обеспечивать выгодные, справедливые и устойчивые цены

to sell smth at inflated prices — продавать что-л. по повышенным ценам

to send prices diving — приводить к резкому падению цен

to send prices skyrocketing / soaring — приводить к резкому росту цен

to send prices through the roof — приводить к резкому росту цен

to send prices tumbling — резко сбивать цены

to set a price — назначать / устанавливать цену

to settle a price — договариваться о цене

to slash a price — резко снижать цену

to stabilize prices — стабилизировать цены

to support prices — поддерживать цены

to sustain the price — удерживать цену

to tumble a price — снижать цену

to undercut prices — сбивать цены

- acceptable price
- actual price
- advanced price
- agricultural prices
- asking price
- at a certain price
- at cost price
- at current prices
- at reduced prices
- at the price of the day
- attractive price
- bargain price
- basic price
- below cost price
- blue-chip prices
- bottom price
- buying price
- ceiling price
- closing price
- collapse in prices
- collapse of prices
- commodity prices
- common price
- comparable prices
- competitive price
- consumer prices

- contract price
- cost price
- current price
- cut in prices
- decline in prices
- decontrolled prices
- difference in prices
- discount price
- discriminatory prices
- drop in prices
- dumping price
- effective price
- equitable price
- escalating prices
- exorbitant price
- export price
- fair price
- fall in prices
- fall of prices
- farm produce prices
- firm price
- fixed price
- fluctuating price
- fluctuation in prices

- food prices
- freeze of prices
- going price
- grain price
- guaranteed price
- heavy price
- high price
- highest price
- import price
- in comparable prices
- increase in prices
- inflated price
- inflationary soaring of prices
- international prices
- jump in prices
- knock-down price
- level of prices
- list price
- long price
- low price
- lowest price
- maintenance of prices
- market price
- market-determined price
- maximum price
- minimum price
- moderate price
- monopoly prices
- net price
- offer price
- oil price
- oil prices touched $... a barrel
- peak price
- pegged price
- plunge in prices
- popular price
- pre-determined price
- preferential price
- prices are on the downward slide
- prices collapse
- prices decline
- prices drop
- prices fall
- prices fluctuate
- prices go down
- prices go up
- prices increase
- prices plummet
- prices plunged to their lowest
- prices push up
- prices rally
- prices react
- prices rebound
- prices remain unstable
- prices rise
- prices rocket
- prices shoot up
- prices showed their second major gain
- prices skyrocket
- prices slip back
- prices slump
- prices spiral downwards
- prices surge ahead
- prices tumble

- prohibitive price
- purchase price
- reasonable price
- reduced price
- reduction of prices
- regular price
- remunerative price
- resale price
- reserve price
- retail price
- rise in prices
- rising prices
- rock-bottom price
- sale price
- selling price
- settlement price
- shaky prices
- share prices are showing big losses
- share prices were slightly weaker
- share prices
- slide in share prices
- slump in prices
- soaring of the price
- speculative price
- stabilization of prices
- stable prices
- state-set price
- state-subsidized price
- steep price
- stiff price
- stock prices
- support price
- surge in prices
- target price
- trade price
- uniform prices
- unit price
- unstable prices
- uplift in prices
- upset price
- variable price
- volatility in share prices
- volume price
- wholesale price
- world market price
- world price
- worldwide fall in share prices 2. v
назначать цену, оценивать

Politics english-russian dictionary > price
11 hole

1. скважина, ствол скважины || бурить скважину

2. отверстие; дыра || просверливать, делать отверстие

3. шурф, выработка малого сечения || закладывать шпуры

4. проушина

— anchor hole

— approach hole

— bell hole

— big hole

— blank hole

— blast hole

— bleed hole

— blind hole

— bore hole

— bottom hole

— branch hole

— bridged hole

— bug hole

— bung hole

— cased hole

— caving hole

— circulating hole

— conductor hole

— core hole

— crooked hole

— dead-end hole

— deviating hole

— dib hole

— directional hole

— discharge hole

— downward sloping hole

— drain hole

— drill hole

— dry hole

— end hole

— escape hole

— flushing hole

— follow-up hole

— full hole

— gauge hole

— grout hole

— guide hole

— high-pressure hole

— hole in

— horizontal hole

— in-gauge hole

— injected hole

— inspection hole

— kelly hole

— kelly's rat hole

— key hole

— key seated hole

— lost hole

— main hole

— make hole

— misdirected hole

— mouse hole

— naked hole

— near gauge hole

— open hole

— open-end hole

— original hole

— outlet hole

— oversize hole

— perforated hole

— pilot hole

— pin hole

— plug hole

— post hole

— powder hole

— prospect hole

— province hole

— proving hole

— rat hole

— record hole

— relief hole

— roof hole

— scout hole

— screen hole

— shot hole

— side hole

— sight hole

— slab hole

— slant hole

— slim hole

— small hole

— snake hole

— tapped hole

— tapping hole

— test hole

— thief hole

— threaded hole

— through hole

— tight hole

— top hole

— unfair hole

— up hole

— water hole

— weep hole

— wet hole

* * *

1. скважина

2. отверстие

— bell hole

— blast hole

— blind hole

— cable-tool hole

— cased hole

— caved hole

— center hole

— charge hole

— core hole

— crooked hole

— definition hole

— diamond drill hole

— discovery hole

— drain hole

— drill hole

— dry hole

— empty hole

— exploratory hole

— freeze hole

— grout hole

— inclined hole

— injected hole

— investigation hole

— line hole

— long hole

— monitoring hole

— observation hole

— offshore hole

— open hole

— probe hole

— prospect hole

— relief hole

— security hole

— shot hole

— slant hole

— slim hole

— sticky hole

— test hole

— thief hole

— to ream hole

— wet hole

* * *

скважина; ствол скважины, отверстие, углубление; шурф (синонимы: mousehole, rathole)

* * *

1. отверстие; перфорация

2. буровая скважина

* * *

1) скважина; буровая скважина; ствол скважины

2) шпур || закладывать шпур

3) отверстие ()

4) выработка малого сечения

5) перфорационное отверстие

•

hole full of oil — скважина заполнена нефтью;

hole full of salt water — ствол, заполненный солёной водой;

hole full of sulfur water — ствол, заполненный водой, содержащей сероводород;

hole full of water — скважина заполнена водой;

hole gone to water — нефтяная скважина, из которой стала поступать только вода;

hole per bit — проходка на одну коронку ();

to carry a dry hole — бурить сухую скважину ();

to carry a wet hole — бурить сухую скважину ();

to cut a hole — бурить скважину;

to drill a hole — бурить скважину;

to flush a hole — промывать ствол скважины;

to hole in — забуривать скважину;

to keep the hole of gage — поддерживать диаметр ствола скважины близким к номинальному;

to line the hole — крепить скважину обсадной колонны;

to make a hole — бурить скважину; давать проходку, вести проходку;

to open a hole — разбуривать башмак обсадной колонны;

to ream hole — расширять ствол скважины;

to seal a hole — закрывать скважину;

to wash a hole — промывать ствол скважины;

went back in a hole — вновь спущенный в скважину;

went in a hole — спущенный в ствол скважины

- advance hole
- air hole
- angled hole
- angled snubbing hole
- angular hole
- auger hole
- bare hole
- barren hole
- bell hole
- bench hole
- big hole
- blank hole
- blast hole
- bleed hole
- blind hole
- bore hole
- bottom hole
- branch hole
- bridged hole
- bug hole
- bung hole
- cable-tool hole
- cased hole
- caved hole
- cave-obstructed hole
- casing hole
- caving hole
- center hole
- charge hole
- churn-drill hole
- circulating hole
- clean hole
- collared hole
- conductor hole
- consolidation hole
- core hole
- cover hole
- crooked hole
- curtain hole
- curved hole
- curving hole
- cushion hole
- dead-end hole
- deadman hole
- deep hole
- definition hole
- deviating hole
- deviated hole
- dia hole
- diamond drilling hole
- dib hole
- dip hole
- directional hole
- discharge hole
- discovery hole
- dog-leg hole
- down hole
- downward sloping hole
- drain hole
- drain branch hole
- drill hole
- drilled hole
- dry hole
- dry hole drilled deeper
- dry hole reentered
- easier hole
- electron beam hole
- elliptical cross-section hole
- elongated cross-section hole
- empty hole
- end hole
- escape hole
- exit hole
- exploration drill hole
- exploratory hole
- favorable-size hole
- filled hole
- filler hole
- filling hole
- flat hole
- fluid-filled hole
- flushing hole
- follow-up hole
- freeze hole
- full-gage hole
- full-gage branch hole
- gage hole
- gas-escape hole
- gas-filled hole
- geophone hole
- gone-off hole
- grout hole
- guide hole
- hammer-drill hole
- high-angle hole
- high-pressure hole
- horizontal hole
- horizontally branched hole
- inclined hole
- in-gage hole
- injected hole
- inspection hole
- intentionally deviated hole
- intermediate hole
- investigation hole
- jet hole
- junked hole
- kelly hole
- kelly rat hole
- key hole
- key seated hole
- large-size hole
- limber hole
- line hole
- lined hole
- liquid-filled hole
- long hole
- lost hole
- lubrication hole
- main hole
- meteorite hole
- mining hole
- misdirected hole
- monitoring hole
- mouse hole
- multiple shot holes
- naked hole
- near gage hole
- observation hole
- offshore hole
- old hole
- open hole
- open-end hole
- original hole
- outlet hole
- out-of-gage hole
- oval-shaped hole
- oversized hole
- parent hole
- pattern holes
- percussion hole
- percussion test hole
- perforated hole
- pilot hole
- pin hole
- plug hole
- pointed-out hole
- post hole
- powder hole
- probe hole
- production hole
- prospecting hole
- protection hole
- province hole
- proving hole
- rat hole
- record hole
- relief hole
- rifled hole
- ring holes
- roof hole
- rough hole
- round hole
- rugose hole
- rust hole
- scout hole
- screen hole
- security hole
- short hole
- shot hole
- shot-drill hole
- shot-open hole
- shrinkage hole
- side hole
- side water hole
- sight hole
- slab hole
- slant hole
- slim hole
- small hole
- small diameter hole
- snake hole
- spiral hole
- spudded-in hole
- sticky hole
- straight hole
- stratigraphic hole
- sump hole
- surface hole
- tapped hole
- tapping hole
- test hole
- thief hole
- threaded hole
- through hole
- tight hole
- top hole
- uncased hole
- undergage hole
- undersized hole
- unfair hole
- up hole
- upward hole
- upward pointing hole
- velocity-test hole
- vertical hole
- vug hole
- washout hole
- water hole
- water-filled hole
- weep hole
- well drill hole
- wet hole
- woodpecker hole
* * *

• буровая скважина

• выработка малого сечения

• делать отверстие

• закладывать шпур

• закладывать шпуры

• отверстие

• перфорационное отверстие

• проушина

Англо-русский словарь нефтегазовой промышленности > hole
12 nuclear

adj ядерний; що відноситься до ядерної зброї

- all-out nuclear conflagration необмежена ядерна війна, тотальна/ всезагальна війна

- nuclear war ядерна війна

- civil nuclear industry галузі промисловості, пов'язані з використанням ядерної енергії в мирних цілях

- grey area nuclear system ядерна зброя середньої дальності, зброя "сірої зони"; "євростратегічна зброя"

- harmonized nuclear export policies узгоджена політика з питань експорту ядерних установок та матеріалів

- limited nuclear response обмежений ядерний удар у відповідь

- limited nuclear retaliation обмежений ядерний удар у відповідь

- massive nuclear attack масований ядерний удар

- near nuclear states країни, здатні створити власну ядерну зброю, "порогові держави"

- non-nuclear parties учасники (договору), що не володіють ядерною зброєю

- nuclear age ядерний вік

- nuclear aggression ядерна агресія

- nuclear annihilation ядерне знищення

- nuclear armament ядерне озброєння

- nuclear arms race гонка ядерних озброєнь

- nuclear arsenal ядерний арсенал

- nuclear attack ядерний напад; ядерний удар

- nuclear balance ядерна рівновага, ядерний паритет

- nuclear big stick ядерний дрючок

- nuclear Blitzkrieg блискавична ядерна війна

- nuclear capability ядерний потенціал

- nuclear catastrophy ядерна катастрофа

- nuclear club клуб ядерних держав

- nuclear contamination радіоактивне забруднення

- nuclear country країна, що має ядерну зброю

- nuclear damage шкода, заподіяна в результаті застосування ядерної зброї

- nuclear defence протиядерний захист

- nuclear delivery засіб доставки ядерних боєприпасів до цілі

- nuclear destruction ядерне роззброєння, знищення ядерної зброї

- nuclear deterrence ядерне залякування

- nuclear deterrence capability можливості потенціального стримування ядерного нападу супротивника

- nuclear deterrent засіб ядерного залякування

- nuclear disarmament ядерне роззброєння; відмова від ядерної зброї

- nuclear equivalence рівність сторін в області ядерних озброєнь

- nuclear facility ядерна установка

- nuclear fallout радіоактивні опади

- nuclear free zone без'ядерна зона

- nuclear freeze заморожування ядерної зброї

- nuclear freeze resolution резолюція про заморожування ядерної зброї

- nuclear fuel ядерне пальне/ паливо

- nuclear guarantee ядерні гарантії

- nuclear holocaust ядерна катастрофа

- nuclear incident ядерний інцидент

- nuclear installations ядерні установки

- nuclear know-how секрети ядерної техніки

- nuclear launching пускові установки ядерної зброї

- nuclear missile arsenals арсенали ракетно-ядерної зброї

- nuclear neutrality ядерний нейтралітет

- nuclear pollution забруднення радіоактивними опадами

- nuclear power ядерна міць

- nuclear proliferation розповсюдження ядерної зброї

- nuclear non-proliferation treaty договір про нерозповсюдження ядерної зброї

- nuclear reactor атомний реактор

- nuclear relationship співвідношення ядерних сил

- nuclear response ядерний удар у відповідь

- nuclear retaliation ядерний удар у відповідь

- nuclear stockpile запаси ядерної зброї

- nuclear strike force ядерна ударна міць

- nuclear sufficiency concept поняття "ядерної достатності"

- nuclear superiority ядерна перевага

- nuclear systems системи ядерної зброї

- nuclear technology ядерна технологія, технологія виробництва ядерної зброї

- nuclear test випробування ядерної зброї

- nuclear threat загроза застосування ядерної зброї

- nuclear umbrella ядерна "парасолька"

- nuclear underground tests підземне використання ядерної зброї, підземні ядерні випробування

- nuclear war(fare) ядерна війна

- nuclear warhead ядерна боєголовка

- nuclear weapon ядерна зброя

- nuclear weapon country країна, що має ядерну зброю

- nuclear weapon-free zone без'ядерна зона

- nuclear weapon parties учасники (договору), що володіють ядерною зброєю

- nuclear weapons technology ядерна технологія, технологія виробництва ядерної зброї

- nuclear weapon test ban заборона використання ядерної зброї

- nuclear weapon test explosion випробовувальний вибух ядерної зброї

- peaceful nuclear explosions ядерний вибух з мирною метою

- peaceful nuclear technology технологія ядерних установок, що використовуються з мирною метою

- strategic nuclear parity стратегічна ядерна рівновага, стратегічний паритет

- uncontrolled nuclear arms race неконтрольована гонка ядерних озброєнь

- cessation of nuclear tests припинення ядерних випробувань

- cessation of the production of nuclear weapons припинення виробництва ядерної зброї

- danger of nuclear proliferation небезпека розповсюдження ядерної зброї

- deterrence of a nuclear war стримування ядерної війни

- nuclear explosion for peaceful purposes ядерний вибух з мирною метою

- peaceful use of nuclear energy використання ядерної енергії в мирних цілях

- outbreak of nuclear war початок ядерної війни

- production of nuclear weapons виробництво ядерної зброї

- proliferation of nuclear weapons розповсюдження ядерної зброї

- proliferation of nuclear weapons technology розповсюдження технології виробництва ядерної зброї

- qualitative development of nuclear weapons якісне вдосконалення ядерної зброї

- safeguards on civil nuclear industry гарантії від галузей промисловості, пов'язаних з використанням ядерної енергії в мирних цілях

- threat of nuclear war загроза ядерної війни

- to ban nuclear weapon заборонити використання ядерної зброї

- to ban the use of nuclear weapons заборонити застосування ядерної зброї

- to be subject to nuclear attack зазнати ядерного нападу

- to deploy nuclear weapons розмістити ядерну зброю

- to exclude all types of nuclear weapons from the arsenals of the states виключити всі види ядерної зброї з арсеналів держав

- to hinder the spread of nuclear weapons перешкоджати розповсюдженню ядерної зброї

- to use nuclear material for civil purposes використовувати ядерні матеріали з мирною ціллю

English-Ukrainian diplomatic dictionary > nuclear
13 nuclear

a

ядерный; относящийся к ядерному оружию

- secure an end to nuclear testing

- nuclear delivery

- nuclear technology

- peaceful use of nuclear energy

- deploy nuclear weapons

- nuclear blitzkrieg

- nuclear systems

- nuclear annihilation

- all-out nuclear war

- nuclear balance

- nuclear weapon states

- means of nuclear delivery

- nuclear club

- outbreak of nuclear war

- nuclear response

- peaceful nuclear technology

- nuclear reactor

- nuclear deterrence

- nuclear test

- nuclear arms race

- nuclear state

- nuclear facility

- nuclear fuel

- ban the use of nuclear weapons

- nuclear peril

- nuclear panoply

- nuclear neutrality

- nuclear warfare

- massive nuclear attack

- nuclear launching devices

- nuclear holocaust

- nuclear arsenal

- nuclear capacity

- nuclear pollution

- nuclear deterrence capability

- nuclear guarantees

- use nuclear materials for civil purposes

- nuclear threat

- nuclear stockpile

- nuclear fallout

- ban nuclear weapon tests

- nuclear incident

- nuclear contamination

- nuclear parity

- nuclear defence

- nuclear power plant

- exclude all types of nuclear weapons from the arsenal of states

- limited nuclear retaliation

- security from a nuclear attack

- deterrence of nuclear war

- civil nuclear industry

- nuclear weapons technology

- processing of nuclear materials

- nuclear destruction

- nuclear attack

- nuclear strike force

- nuclear power

- nuclear freeze resolution

- nuclear freeze

- nuclear superiority

- nuclear underground tests

- nuclear disarmament

- nuclear retaliation

- threat of nuclear war

- cessation of the production of nuclear weapons

- nuclear country

- nuclear umbrella

- nuclear weapon test ban

- nuclear deterrent

- nuclear missile arsenals

- nuclear materials

- cessation of nuclear tests

- nuclear damage

- nuclear weapon test explosion

- nuclear proliferation

- nuclear war

- nuclear delivery vehicle

- harmonized nuclear export policies

- nuclear weapon

- nuclear energy

- strategic nuclear parity

- nuclear age

- nuclear explosion

- nuclear catastrophe

- proliferation of nuclear weapons technology

- nuclear sufficiency concept

- nuclear knockout

- nuclear capability

- nuclear sufficiency

- nuclear relationship

- qualitative development of nuclear weapons

- nuclear equivalence

- grey area nuclear weapons system

- hinder the spread of nuclear weapons

- limited nuclear response

- peaceful nuclear explosion

- be subject to nuclear attack

- nuclear installation

- uncontrolled nuclear arms race

- proliferation of nuclear weapons

- danger of nuclear proliferation

- nuclear big stick

- nuclear know-how

- production of nuclear weapons

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > nuclear
14 policy

n

1) политика; политический курс; стратегия; система; ( towards smth) позиция

2) страховой полис

•

to abandon policy — отходить / отказываться от политики

to abide by policy — придерживаться политики

to adhere to policy — придерживаться политики; быть верным какой-л. политике

to administer policy — проводить политику; осуществлять политику

to adopt policy — принимать политику, брать на вооружение политический курс

to advise smb on policy — быть чьим-л. политическим советником

to advocate policy — отстаивать политику

to apply policy — проводить политический курс

to approve policy — одобрять политику

to argue for tougher policy — настаивать на ужесточении политики

to assign smth the status of state policy — возводить что-л. в ранг государственной политики

to back down from policy — отказываться от какой-л. политики

to be adept at foreign policy — быть искушенным в вопросах внешней политики

to be at odds with policy — противоречить какой-л. политике

to be committed to one's policy — быть приверженным своей политике

to be wary about smb's policy — настороженно относиться к чьему-л. политическому курсу

to break away from smb's policy — отходить от чьей-л. политики

to bring one's defense policy closer together — согласовывать свою политику в области обороны

to camouflage one's policy — маскировать свою политику

to carry out / to carry through policy — проводить политику

to champion policy — защищать / отстаивать политику

to change one's policy — менять свою политику

to condemn policy — осуждать политику

to conduct policy — проводить политику

to conflict with smb's policy — противоречить чьей-л. политике

to continue policy — продолжать политику

to coordinate one's policy over smth — координировать свою политику в каком-л. вопросе

to cover up one's policy — маскировать свою политику

to criticize policy — критиковать политику

to decide policy — определять политику, принимать политические решения

to declare policy — объявлять политику

to denounce policy — осуждать политику

to design policy — планировать политику

to determine policy — определять политику

to develop / to devise policy — разрабатывать политику

to direct policy — руководить политикой

to discredit policy — дискредитировать политику

to dismantle one's policy — отказываться от своей политики

to disrupt policy — срывать политику

to dissociate oneself from smb's policy — отмежевываться от чьей-л. политики

to dither about one's policy — колебаться при проведении своей политики

to dump policy — отказываться от политики

to effect policy — осуществлять политику

to effect a policy of insurance — страховаться; приобретать страховой полис

to elaborate policy — вырабатывать политику

to embark on / to embrace policy — принимать какой-л. политический курс

to employ policy — применять политику

to end policy — прекращать политику

to endanger policy — ставить под угрозу политику

to endorse policy — одобрять политику

to establish policy — устанавливать политику

to examine policy — рассматривать политику

to execute / to exercise policy — проводить политику

to explain policy — разъяснять политику

to expound policy — излагать политику

to express policy — высказывать политические взгляды

to follow policy — следовать политике; проводить политику

to forge policy — вырабатывать политику

to formulate policy — определять политику

to frame policy — вырабатывать политику

to give up policy — отказываться от политики

to guide policy — направлять политику

to halt smb's policy — останавливать чью-л. политику

to harden one's policy — ужесточать свою политику / позицию

to harmonize policy — координировать / согласовывать политику

to hold to policy — придерживаться политики

to implement policy — проводить политику

to initiate policy — положить начало политике

to institutionalize policy — законодательно закреплять политику

to interfere in policy — вмешиваться в политику

to introduce policy — вводить политику

to investigate policy — расследовать политику

to justify one's policy — оправдывать свою политику

to keep policy — сохранять политику неизменной

to keep policy going — продолжать политику

to launch policy — начинать проведение политики

to lay policy before the electorate for approval — излагать политический курс для его одобрения избирателями

to lay down policy — устанавливать политический курс

to lose control of policy — утрачивать контроль над политикой

to maintain policy — продолжать политику

to make policy — быть творцом политики

to make a U-turn in policy — делать поворот на 180 градусов в политике

to make clear one's policy — разъяснять свою политику

to make defense policy — заниматься вопросами обороны

to make one's own policy — принимать самостоятельные политические решения

to map out policy — намечать политический курс

to moderate policy — делать политику более умеренной

to modify policy — изменять политику

to outline policy — намечать политический курс

to overturn policy — отвергать политику, отказываться от какой-л. политики

to present policy — излагать политику

to proclaim one's commitment to policy — публично обязываться проводить какую-л. политику

to profess policy — заявлять о политике

to promote the reform policy — способствовать успеху политики реформ

to propagate policy — пропагандировать / рекламировать политику

to pursue policy — проводить политику

to put across smb's policy to smb — доводить свою политику до кого-л.

to put forward policy — выдвигать политический курс

to put one's policy into practice — осуществлять свою политику

to question policy — подвергать сомнению политику

to railroad through one's policy — протаскивать свою политику

to reappraise one's policy — пересматривать свою политику

to reassess one's policy toward a country — пересматривать свою политику по отношению к какой-л. стране

to reconsider one's policy — пересматривать свою политику

to reform policy — перестраивать политику

to reject policy — отвергать политику

to relax one's policy towards smb — смягчать свою политику по отношению к кому-л.

to rethink one's policy — пересматривать свою политику

to reveal policy (of) — разоблачать политику

to reverse one's policy — изменять свою политику

to review policy — 1) делать обзор политики 2) пересматривать политику

to rewrite policy — изменять политику

to set out policy — излагать политику

to shape policy — определять / разрабатывать политику

to signal a change in foreign policy — свидетельствовать об изменении внешней политики

to spearhead one's policy — направлять острие своей политики

to spell out one's policy in advance — заранее излагать свою политику

to stick to a policy — придерживаться какой-л. политики

to support policy — поддерживать политику

to test policy — проверять политику

to thrash out policy — вырабатывать / обсуждать политику

to tighten monetary policy — вводить более строгие правила в финансовой политике

to tone down one's more controversial policy — ограничивать свои менее популярные политические меры

to validate policy — поддерживать какую-л. политику / политическую линию

to violate policy — отступать от политики

to work out policy — разрабатывать политику

- about-turn in policy
- active policy
- adventurist policy
- adventuristic policy
- advocacy of policy
- advocate of policy
- aggressive policy
- agrarian policy
- agricultural policy
- alternative policy
- annexationist policy
- anti-inflationary policy
- anti-national policy
- anti-nuclear policy
- anti-recessionary policy
- appropriate policy
- architect of policy
- arms policy
- austere policy
- austerity policy
- autonomous policy
- balanced policy
- banking policy
- bankrupt policy
- basic policy
- beggar-my-neighbor policy
- bellicose policy
- big stick policy
- big-time policy
- bipartisan policy
- blind-eye policy
- bloc policy
- bomb-in-the-basement policy
- breach of policy
- bridge-building policy
- brinkmanship policy
- brink-of-war policy
- broad-brush policy
- budget policy
- cadres policy
- carrot and stick policy
- cautious policy
- centrist policy
- champion of policy
- change in policy
- change of emphasis in policy
- change of policy
- circumspect policy
- class policy
- clean-air policy
- closed-door trade policy
- coherent policy
- cold war policy
- colonial policy
- colonialist policy
- commercial policy
- commitment to policy of nonintervention
- common policy
- comprehensive national science and technology policy
- comprehensive set of policy
- concerted policy
- conduct of policy
- confrontation policy
- consistent policy
- containment policy
- continuity in policy
- continuity of policy
- continuity with smb's policy
- controversial policy
- coordinated policy
- cornerstone of policy
- counterproductive policy
- country's fundamental policy
- credible policy
- credit card policy
- credit policy
- crumbling policy
- cultural policy
- current policy
- damaging policy
- defeatist policy
- defense policy
- deflationary policy
- demilitarization policy
- democratic policy
- departure in policy
- destabilization policy
- deterrent policy
- development policy
- diametrically opposed policy
- dilatory policy
- diplomatic policy
- disarmament policy
- discretionary policy
- discriminatory policy
- disinflation policy
- distortion of policy
- divide-and-rule policy
- domestic policy
- dynamic policy
- economic and commercial policy
- economic policy
- embargo policy
- emigration policy
- emission policy
- employment policy
- energy policy
- environmental policy
- erroneous policy
- European policy
- even-handed policy
- expansionary policy
- expansionist policy
- experience of policy
- extreme right-wing policy
- fair policy
- farm policy
- far-reaching policy
- far-sighted policy
- federal policy
- financial policy
- firm policy
- fiscal policy
- flexible policy
- for reasons of policy
- foreign aid policy
- foreign policy
- foreign trade policy
- foreign-economic policy
- formation of foreign policy
- formulation of policy
- forward-looking policy
- framework for policy
- free trade policy
- general policy
- generous policy
- give-and-take policy
- global policy
- godfather to policy
- good neighbor policy
- government policy
- government's policy
- great-power policy
- green policy
- gunboat policy
- hands-off policy
- hard-line policy
- harmful policy
- harmonized policy
- health policy
- hegemonic policy
- high-risk policy
- home policy
- ill-thought-out policy
- imperial policy
- imperialist policy
- import policy
- import substitution policy
- in line with policy
- in the field of foreign policy
- inadmissibility of policy
- independent line of policy
- independent policy
- industrial policy
- inflationary policy
- inhuman policy
- instigatory policy
- insurance policy
- internal policy
- international policy
- internment policy
- interventionist policy
- intolerableness of policy
- investment policy
- iron-fist policy
- irreversible policy
- it's against our policy
- kid-glove policy
- labor mediation policy
- laissez-faire policy
- land policy
- language policy
- leash-loosening policy
- left-wing policy
- lending policy
- liberal policy
- liberalization of policy
- liberalized policy
- line of policy
- long-range policy
- long-term policy
- lunatic policy
- main plank of smb's policy
- major changes to policy
- manifestation of policy
- maritime policy
- marketing policy
- massive condemnation of smb's policy
- militaristic policy
- misconduct of policy
- mobile policy
- moderate policy
- monetarist policy
- monetary policy
- much-heralded policy
- mushy policy
- national policy
- nationalistic policy
- nationalities policy
- native policy
- nativist policy
- neo-colonialist policy
- NEP
- neutral policy
- neutrality policy
- New Economic Policy
- news policy
- nonaligned policy
- nonalignment policy
- noninterference policy
- nonintervention policy
- nonnuclear policy
- nuclear defense policy
- nuclear deterrent policy
- nuclear policy
- nuclear-free policy
- obstructionist policy
- official policy
- official trade policy
- oil policy
- old faces can't make new policy
- one-child-family policy
- one-sided policy
- open-door policy
- openly pursued policy
- opportunistic policy
- optimal policy
- ostrich policy
- ostrich-like policy
- outward-looking policy
- overall policy
- overtly racist policy
- parliamentary policy
- party policy
- passive policy
- pay-curb policy
- peace policy
- peaceful policy
- peace-loving policy
- personnel policy
- plunderous policy
- policy from positions of strength
- policy from strength
- policy in science and technology
- policy is bearing fruit
- policy is constitutional
- policy of a newspaper
- policy of aid
- policy of alliances
- policy of amicable cooperation with smb
- policy of appeasement
- policy of belt-tightening
- policy of capitulation
- policy of compromise
- policy of conciliation
- policy of confrontation
- policy of connivance
- policy of containment
- policy of cooperation
- policy of democracy and social progress
- policy of détente
- policy of deterrence
- policy of dictate
- policy of discrimination
- policy of economic blockade and sanctions
- policy of economy
- policy of elimination
- policy of expansion and annexation
- policy of fiscal rigor
- policy of freedom of expression
- policy of friendship
- policy of genocide
- policy of good-neighborliness
- policy of goodwill
- policy of inaction
- policy of intervention
- policy of intimidation
- policy of isolation
- policy of militarism
- policy of militarization
- policy of military confrontation
- policy of military force
- policy of national reconciliation
- policy of neutrality
- policy of nonalignment
- policy of noninterference
- policy of nonintervention
- policy of nonviolence
- policy of obstruction
- policy of openness
- policy of pacification
- policy of peace
- policy of peaceful co-existence
- policy of plunder
- policy of protectionism
- policy of racial segregation and discrimination
- policy of reconciliation
- policy of reform
- policy of reforms
- policy of regulating prices
- policy of renewal
- policy of restraint
- policy of revanche
- policy of revenge
- policy of subjugation
- policy of violence
- policy of wage restraint
- policy of war
- policy towards a country
- policy vis-à-vis a country
- policy with regard to a country
- policy won out
- political policy
- population policy
- position-of-strength policy
- practical policy
- predatory policy
- price control policy
- price-formation policy
- price-pricing policy
- pricing policy
- principled policy
- progressive policy
- proponent of policy
- protagonist of policy
- protectionist policy
- pro-war policy
- pro-Western policy
- public policy
- push-and-drag policy
- racial policy
- racist policy
- radical policy
- rapacious policy
- reactionary policy
- realistic policy
- reappraisal of policy
- reassessment of policy
- recession-induced policy
- reevaluation of policy
- reexamination of policy
- reform policy
- reformist policy
- regional policy
- renewal of policy
- re-orientation of policy
- repressive policy
- resettlement policy
- rethink of policy
- retrograde policy
- revanchist policy
- reversal of policy

- revision of policy
- revisionist policy
- rigid economic policy
- robust foreign policy
- ruinous policy
- safe policy
- sanctions policy
- scientifically substantiated policy
- scorched-earth policy
- selfless policy
- separatist policy
- shift in policy

- shoot-to-kill anti-terrorist policy
- short-sighted policy
- single-child policy
- social policy
- socio-economic policy
- sound policy
- splitting policy
- state policy
- state remuneration of labor policy
- stated policy
- staunch policy
- sterile policy
- stick-and-carrot policy
- stringent policy
- strong policy
- structural policy
- suitable policy
- sustained policy
- sweeping review of policy
- switch in policy
- tariff policy
- tax policy
- taxation policy
- technological policy
- tight policy
- tightening of policy
- time-serving policy
- tough policy
- toughening of policy
- trade policy
- trade-unionist policy
- traditional policy
- treacherous policy
- turn in policy
- turning point in policy
- unified policy
- united policy
- unsophisticated policy
- U-turn in policy
- viability of policy
- vigorous policy
- vote-losing policy
- wage policy
- wage-freeze policy
- wages policy
- wait-and-see policy
- war-economy policy
- wealth-creating policy
- whip-and-carrot policy
- wise policy
- world policy
- zigzags in policy

Politics english-russian dictionary > policy
15 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
16 look

luk 1. verb
1) (to turn the eyes in a certain direction so as to see, to find, to express etc: He looked out of the window; I've looked everywhere, but I can't find him; He looked at me (angrily).) se (på/etter)

2) (to seem: It looks as if it's going to rain; She looks sad.) se ut som

3) (to face: The house looks west.) vende (ut mot)
2. noun
1) (the act of looking or seeing: Let me have a look!) titt

2) (a glance: a look of surprise.) blikk

3) (appearance: The house had a look of neglect.) utseende

•

- look-alike
- - looking
- looks
- looker-on
- looking-glass
- lookout
- by the looks of
- by the look of
- look after
- look ahead
- look down one's nose at
- look down on
- look for
- look forward to
- look here!
- look in on
- look into
- look on
- look out
- look out!
- look over
- look through
- look up
- look up to

blikk
--------
forvente
--------
mine
--------
synes

I
subst. \/lʊk\/

1) blikk, titt, øyekast

• let me have a look

la meg se

2) utseende

• the town has a European look

byen ser europeisk ut

• the house had a neglected look

huset så vanskjøttet ut

• affairs took an ugly look

det begynte å se utrivelig ut

3) uttrykk, mine, oppsyn

• an ugly look on his face

et stygt uttrykk i ansiktet hans

• a look of pleasure came to her face

hun fikk et tilfreds uttrykk i ansiktet

• I can tell it by your look

jeg kan se det på deg

4) stil, mote

• the latest look from French designers

by the look of something etter utseendet å dømme, det ser ut som

a forward look at et fremadrettet blikk på

freeze somebody with a look gi noen et iskaldt blikk, drepe noen med blikket

have\/take a look at titte på, ta en titt på, kaste et blikk på

• have a close look at the building

undersøke bygningen nøye

have the look of se ut som

• it has the look of murder

det ser ut som drap

improve on one's looks se bedre ut, forbedre utseendet

a look of inquiry et spørrende blikk

looks ( om person) utseende

• she has her mother's looks

hun har sin mors utseende

the new look den nye looken (klesstil lansert i 1947)

throw a look at someone\/something eller throw someone\/something a look kaste et blikk på noe(n)

with a look of entreaty med et bedende blikk
II
verb \/lʊk\/

1) se, titte, kikke

• I was so embarrassed I didn't know where to look

jeg var så flau at jeg ikke visste hvor jeg skulle se

2) lete, søke

• we looked everywhere but couldn't find it

vi har lett overalt, men kunne ikke finne det

3) se ut, virke, synes, te seg, se ut som, ligne

• he looked a typical Italian

han ligner en typisk italiener

• how do I look?

hvordan ser jeg ut?, hvordan tar jeg meg ut?

• things look bad for him

det ser dårlig ut for ham

• it looks odd to me

jeg synes det virker rart

• he looks good in uniform

han kler uniform

• he looked to be stronger than he was

han så ut til å være sterkere enn det han var

• it looks to me as if...

jeg synes det ser ut som om...

• he looks it

det ser han ut som

• she looks 50

hun ser ut som om hun er 50

• what a fright you look!

som du ser ut!, du ser fryktelig ut!

• he looks himself again

han er seg selv igjen, han ser frisk ut igjen

• it looks a larger room than it is

rommet ser større ut enn det er

4) ha utsikt, vende, ligge

• the house looks west

huset er vestvendt

5) ( overført) peke i retning av, tyde på

• everything looks to a war

alt peker mot krig

• all the facts look the other way

alle fakta tyder på det motsatte

6) vente seg, forvente, regne med

• the company is looking to expand business

7) ( gammeldags) se til at

• look it be done

se til at det blir gjort

here's looking at you ( hverdagslig) skål!

look about se seg omkring

• he looked about the room

han så seg om i rommet

• he was looking about for a job

han så seg om etter en jobb

look about one se seg omkring ( overført) tenke over saken, tenke over det hele, tenke seg om

• I hardly had time to look about me

jeg hadde knapt tid til å tenke meg om

se seg for, se opp, passe seg

• look about you!

se deg for!, se opp!

• look well about you

se deg godt for

look a fool se dum ut være til latter, dumme seg ut

• don't make her look a fool

ikke gjør henne til latter

look after se etter, se til, passe på, ha et øye på, ta hånd om

• look after one's health

• look after one's interests

se etter, titte etter, følge med blikket, lete etter

look after oneself klare seg selv, ta hånd om seg selv være forsiktig

look alive! eller look lively! ( hverdagslig) raska på!, la det nå gå litt kvikt!

look and see se etter, finn ut, få rede på

• look and see whether she's right

se etter om hun har rett

look around se seg om, se seg omkring ( overført) undersøke forholdene, sette seg inn i forholdene

look around one se seg for, se opp, passe seg

• look carefully around you

se deg omhyggelig for

look at se på, titte på

• he wouldn't even look at her

han ville ikke engang se på henne

• he is the sort of person you wouldn't look twice at

han er ikke en slik type man ser to ganger etter

• you wouldn't think so to look at her

det skulle man ikke tro når man ser henne, hun ser ikke sånn ut

( også overført) betrakte, se på

• that's how I look at it

sånn ser jeg det, det er mitt syn på saken

• he doesn't look twice at his money

han snur ikke på skillingen, han er ikke gjerrig

se i, lese

• I never look at a newspaper

jeg leser aldri en avis

undersøke, vurdere

• he wouldn't look at my proposal

han ville ikke vurdere forslaget mitt

look away se bort, se vekk, se en annen vei

look back se tilbake, tenke tilbake ( i negativ form) ikke lykkes, ha motgang, lide nederlag

• she started her career ten years ago, and has never looked back

hun begynte sin karriere for ti år siden, og har bare hatt medgang

bakke ut, gå tilbake

• you can't look back now

look before you leap! tenk før du handler!

look big se viktig ut

look daggers ha mord i blikket, gi noen et drepende blikk

• he looked daggers at me

han ga meg et drepende blikk

look down (up(on)) ( spesielt overført) se ned (på)

• he looked down upon him

han så ned på ham

look down one's nose at ( overført) se ned på

look favourably upon something være velvillig innstilt til noe

look for lete etter, titte etter, søke vente seg, regne med, håpe på

look for oneself eller judge for oneself dømme selv, se selv

look for trouble utfordre skjebnen

look forward to se frem til, glede seg til, lengte etter

• I look forward to his coming

jeg ser frem til at han kommer

look hard at somebody stirre stivt på noen

look here! se!, se her! hør her!, nå skal du høre!

look high ( overført) sikte høyt

look in on someone se inn til noen hilse på hos noen, stikke innom noen

look into vende ut mot, ha utsikt til se inn i se i

• look into a book

undersøke, forske i, granske

• I'll look into the matter

jeg skal undersøke saken

look like se ut som, ligne

• it looks like gold

• what does he look like?

hvordan ser han ut?

• it looks like being a fine day

det ser ut til å bli en fin dag

• she looked like crying

hun så ut som om hun skulle gråte

• she doesn't look much like a professor

hun ser ikke akkurat ut som en professor

look on se på, være tilskuer

look on to vende ut mot, ha utsikt til

look out se ut, titte ut

• look out of the window

se ut gjennom vinduet

se seg for, se opp, passe på, ha øynene oppe, være på vakt

look out! se opp!, se deg for!, pass deg!

look out for se opp for, se (seg om) etter

• look out for cars

forberede seg på, vente

• look out for trouble

• you can look out for me at six

du kan vente meg klokken seks

( britisk) finne (ut), få rede på, se etter, velge ut

• look out a word in a book

look out on eller look out over ha utsikt over, vende mot

• the room looks out on the seafront

look over se over, se i

• can I look over your book?

se igjennom, lese igjennom, se over, se på, granske, undersøke

• look over a house before byuing it

• the doctor looked him over

look round (for) se seg om (etter), se seg omkring (etter)

• look around the town

se seg om i byen

look sharp! skynd deg!, fort deg!

look small ( overført) se liten ut, se ynkelig ut

look someone in the eye\/face møte noens blikk, se direkte på noen

look someone through and through gjennomskue noen fullstendig

look someone up ( hverdagslig) ta kontakt med noen

look someone up and down mønstre noen fra topp til tå, måle noen med blikket

look something up slå opp noe (i en ordbok e.l.)

look the other way ( overført) lukke øynene for

look thoroughly into a matter gå en sak nærmere etter i sømmene

look through se gjennom, se i

• look through a telescope

se gjennom, bla gjennom, lese gjennom, undersøke

• look through some letters

• he looked the proposals through

( overført) gjennomskue, se tvers gjennom ( overført) ikke la seg merke med, overse, behandle som luft synes gjennom, (også overført) skinne gjennom

• his greed looked through his eyes

grådigheten lyste ut av øynene hans

look to vende ut mot, ha utsikt til peke på at det blir ( overført) se på, ta i betraktning se om, sørge for, tenke på, passe på

• look to your manners

• look to it that...

se til at...

regne med, vente seg, se frem til, håpe på

look to someone for something vente noe av noen, håpe på å få noe av noen

• I look to her to help me

jeg stoler på at hun skal hjelpe meg

look towards vende ut mot, ha utsikt til peke mot, peke på at det blir se mot ( slang) skåle for

• I look toward you!

look twice at se to ganger på

look up se opp

• look up to her

respektere henne

( handel) gå opp, stige, ta seg opp, bli bedre

• things are looking up

det lysner, det tar seg opp

look upon (as) ( overført) betrakte (som), anse (for)

• I look upon them as friends

jeg ser på dem som venner

look where you are going! se deg for!, se hvor du går!

look you! eller look'ee! ( dialekt) hører du!, legg merke til det!, (innskutt) forstår du

English-Norwegian dictionary > look
17 hand

I [hænd] n
1) рука, ручка, кисть руки

See:

parts of the hand

I have my hands full. — У меня дел по горло.

My hands are cold/are freezing. — У меня замерзли руки.

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. — Лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе. /Не сули журавля в небе, а дай синицу в руки.

Can be counted on the fingers of one hand. — Раз, два и обчелся.

To bite the hand that feeds you. — Рубить сук, на котором сидишь.

To live from hand to mouth. — Перебиваться с хлеба на воду.

One hand washes the other. — Рука руку моет.

The left hand doesn't know what the right hand is doing. — Левая рука не знает, что делает правая.

To know smth as the back of one's hand. — Знать, как свои пять пальцев.

To get smth off one's hands. — С плеч долой. /Скинуть с рук долой.

With my hand on my heart. — Положа руку на сердце.

To die by one's own hand. — Наложить на себя руки.

To change hands. — Переходить из рук в руки.

To get the upper hand. — Взять верх.

Don't put your hand further than your sleeve. — По одежке тяни ножки.

A clean hand doesn't want/need washing no washing. — Нечестно живешь, себя подведешь. /Хлеб соль ешь, а правду режь.

- childish hand
- white hands
- moist hands
- sinewy hands
- left hand
- deft hands
- calloused hands
- olive hands
- nimble hands
- well-groomed hands
- one's shriveled hands
- one's wrinkled hands
- one's bad hand
- one's mutilated hand
- child's hand
- one's wounded hand
- hand covered with sores
- hand with two fingers missing
- hand in a sling
- fracture in one's hand
- sharp pain in one's hand
- with one's hands behind one's back
- with one's folded hands in one's lap co
- with one's hands tied
- with one's own hands
- in one's cupped hand
- keep smth at hand
- wash one's hands
- hold out one's hand to smb
- put one's hands behind one's back

- cross one's hands in one's lap
- treat one's hand
- rub cream into one's hand
- hurt one's hand
- get one's hand frost-bitten
- bandage smb's hand
- carry one's hand in a sling
- join hands
- take smb's hand
- grab somebody by the hand
- hold smth in one's hands
- pass one's hand across one's forehead
- bury one's face in one's hands

- reach one's hand for smth
- bite smb's hand
- go on one's hands and knees
- shake hands with smb
- wave one's hand
- beg smb's hand in marriage
- gain smb's hand
- smb's hands freeze
- smb's hands ache
- smb's hands are tied
- smb is bound hand and foot
2) стрелка (часов)

The hand of the clock is creeping on. — Стрелка часов еле движется.

- hour hand
- hand of the clock
3) власть, контроль, надзор

The matter is now in your hands. — Дело теперь в ваших руках.

His life was in my hands. — Его жизнь была в моей власти.

He is still in the hands of the moneylenders. — Он еще в руках ростовщиков.

The hand of a master can easily be traced in the picture. — В этом полотне ясно видна рука большого художника.

- firm hand
- be in good hands
- get into in good hands
- run the business with a firm hand
- fall into the hands of the enemy
- change hands
- keep smb in hand
- get out of hand
- put the matter in the hands of a lawyer
- put oneself in smb's hands
- keep oneself well in hands
- play into smb's hand
- have someone's fate in one's hands
4) сторона, точка зрения

He sat close on/at my right hand. — Он сидел по правой руке от меня.

A street with shops on either hand. — Улица, по обе стороны которой идут магазины.

- on the one hand
- on all hands co
- on either hand
- on the left hand
- at smb's right hand
- sit on smb's right hand
5) участие, помощь

I have heard the story at first hand. — Я слышал об этой истории из первых рук.

Would you lend me a hand in moving the furniture? — Вы не поможете мне передвинуть мебель?

Could you give me a hand with my luggage? — Вы не поможете мне с вещами?

I had no hand in it. — Я не принимал в этом никакого участия.

The work suggests an unpracticed hand. — Работа, видимо, была выполнена неопытным человеком/автором.

- guiding hand
- have a hand in this affair
- have a hand in smth
- have a hand in the plot
- have no hand in smth
- give smb a hand with a heavy box
- get smb a big hand
- refuse smb's hand
- accept smb's hand
- oil smb's hand
- lend smb a hand in doing smth
6) рабочие руки, рабочий, работник

The factory has taken on (employed) some 12.000 hands. — Фабрика наняла около 12.000 рабочих. /На фабрике работает 12.000 рабочих.

We have not sufficient hands. — Мы испытываем нехватку в рабочей силе.

She is a poor hand at dressmaking. — Она не умеет шить платья.

He is an old hand at this sort of work. — Он имеет большой опыт такой работы.

- field hand
- machine hand
- harvest hands
•

CHOICE OF WORDS:

(1.) Русскому существительному рука 1. соответствуют в английском языке hand (от пальцев до запястья) и arm (от кисти до плеча), поэтому русское словосочетание "нести в руках сумку (книгу, палку)" соответствует в английском языке словосочетаниям: to carry one's bag (book, stick) in one's hand(s), а нести (держать) ребенка на руках - to carry (to hold) a child in one's arms; взяться за руки соответствует to join hands, а идти под руку соответствует to walk arm in arm. (2.) See arm, n; USAGE (1.)
II [hænd] v
вручать, передавать

I handed the note to him myself. — Я сам (лично) вручил ему эту записку.

Hand me those papers, please. — Передайте мне эти документы, пожалуйста

- hand smth to smb

English-Russian combinatory dictionary > hand
18 policy

I
n

1) политика

- for reasons of policy

- critical issues of policy

- lurches of policy

- conduct a policy

- carry on a policy

- pursue a policy

- follow an independent policy

- endorse a policy

- approve a policy

- buck smb.'s policy

- attack smb.'s policy

- commit oneself to a policy

- condemn smb.'s policy

- drift to shift away from the policy

- drift away shift away from the policy

- drop the policy

- abandon the policy

- elaborate policy

- make policy

- form a policy

- shape a policy

- set out a policy

- enunciate a policy

- fail to explain one's policies persuasively

- harden one's policy

- validate one's policy

- justify one's policy

- re-examine one's policy

- revise one's policy

- review one's policy

- reject a policy

- uphold a policy

- reconcile policies

- stick with existing policies

- moderate a policy toward a country

- offer a positive policy

- have misgivings about smb.'s policy

- revive the cold war policy

- policy in favour of the status quo

- watering-down of the policy

2) линия поведения; курс, стратегия

•

- audacious policy

- objectives of foreign policy

- social policy

- nuclear-freeze policy

- interest rate policies

- independent foreign policy

- credit policy

- two-track policy

- fiscal policy

- belligerent policy

- flexible policy

- policy of détente

- stand for the continuity in foreign policy

- policy of appeasement

- home policy

- major foreign policy decisions

- international monetary policy

- antagonistic policies policy

- policy of international solidarity

- price support policy

- realistic policy

- investment policy

- foreign policy

- near-optimal policy

- mandatory sanctions policy

- policy of the status quo

- imperialist foreign policy

- discredit smb.'s foreign policy

- give-and-take policy

- policy of accommodation

- denigrate smb.'s foreign policy

- class policy

- define an alternative foreign policy

- stabilization policy

- expectant policy

- arms control policy

- policy measures

- policy of dragging-out

- position-of-strength policy

- optimal policy

- policy statement

- policy of conciliation

- formulation of foreign policy

- maximum profit policy

- peace policy

- principled class policy

- policy shift

- embargo policy

- incomes policy

- anti-inflationary policies

- basis of foreign policy

- established policy

- racist policy on immigration

- stop-and-go policy

- internal policy

- constructive foreign policy

- demographic policy

- prices and incomes policy

- patch-up policy

- lending policy

- export policy

- common pricing policy

- cloak and dagger policy

- long-range policy

- proclaim one's foreign policy

- reversal of foreign policy

- expansionist policy

- common energy policy

- brink-of-war policy

- policy of adventurism

- flip and flop policy

- crediting policy

- adjustment policy

- disguise the true nature of one's foreign policy

- safe policy

- character of foreign policy

- articulate one's foreign policy

- nondiscretionary policy

- purchasing policy

- cheeseparing policy

- policy organs

- policy of bluff

- see-saw policy

- block policy

- kid-glove policy

- policy of linkage

- long-run policy

- overt policy

- policy of neutrality

- budgetary policy

- policy of dictat

- tight credit and money policy

- colonial policy

- international policy

- stocking policy

- open market policy

- inward-looking policy

- hands-off policy

- conduct of foreign policy

- policy of pin-pricks

- tighten monetary policy

- misunderstand smb.'s foreign policy

- policy of arm-twisting

- competition policy

- embark upon a brigand policy

- policy makers

- key determinant of foreign policy

- bipartisan policy

- policy of go-it-alone

- monetarist policy

- major issues of foreign policy

- appeasement policy

- profit policy

- short-sighted policy

- evolve a new foreign policy

- radical policy

- sound monetary policy

- pricing policy

- carrot and stick policy

- reflationary policy

- expenditure switching policy

- cornerstone of foreign policy

- break with the policy of détente

- trading policy

- tax policy

- outward-looking policy

- management policy

- agreed policy

- sales policy

- peaceful policy

- irresponsible policy

- farm policy

- social and economic policies

- good neighbour policy

- shifts in foreign policy

- laissez-faire policy

- policy body

- instrument of foreign policy

- policy of peace

- discriminatory trading policy

- make a major foreign policy decision

- policy of aggression

- foreign trade policy

- core of foreign policy

- extortionist policy of prices

- twist policy

- import policy

- effectiveness of foreign policy

- discriminatory crediting policy

- policy of expansion

- regional policy

- re-expansionary policy

- commercial policy

- neocolonialist policy

- libel smb.'s foreign policy

- conciliatory policy

- detect the true nature of smb.'s foreign policy

- policy of direct confrontation

- policy of brinkmanship

- import substitution policy

- open door policy

- official trade policy

- policy decisions

- counteract policies of aggression

- scorched earth policy

- adapt one's foreign policy to

- economic policy

- expansionary policy

- aggressive policy

- myopic policy

- crucial issues of foreign policy

- re-examine the premises of one's foreign policy

- external policy

- deflation policy

- reactionary imperialist policy

- big stick policy

- peaceable policy

- forward-looking policy

- neocolonial policy

- middle-of-the-road policy

- long-term policy

- wait-and-see policy

- uniform agricultural policy

- plunderous policy

- monetary policy

- prices and wages policy

- incomes standstill policy

- domestic policy

- brigand policy

- trade policy

- policy of total contention

- consistent policy

- policy of wrecking tentative agreements

- policy of economy

- determine one's foreign policy

- public policy

- protectionist policy

- premises of foreign policy

- deflationary monetary policy

- vigorous promulgation policy

- responsible policy

- inflationary policy
II
n

страховой полис

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > policy

См. также в других словарях:

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the big freeze

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the big freeze

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